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Showing posts with the label humans

Science of the Fountain of Youth

Cosmologically speaking, humans and all other animal forms of life (here on Earth) don't live very long. We can thank this fact for the evolutionary design of life based on the organic chemistry we are all made of. We came a long way from the point in history when evolution started to boost our development from hunter-gatherers into today's dominant species. But do we live longer today than before? Despite common belief and compared to our ancestors who lived in the past dozen millennia, the life span of humans today, enhanced by miracles of modern ways of living, which, in short, include improved health care and nutrition, better sanitation, access to clean running water, and immunization, is not dramatically extended, if at all.

Yes, the life expectancy (average life span of the entire population) of ancient times was way shorter than today, but this statistical data was misleading because of the vast number of people in the distant past who died very young due to high child mortality caused by numerous deaths of young people who didn't survive all the hazards of deadly diseases and various infections and epidemics. But many of those who experienced adulthood actually lived to a ripe old age. If we exclude life expectancy from the table and check a couple of known people from, for example, Roman history, Emperor Tiberius died at the age of 77 while Empress Livia, wife of Augustus, lived until she was 87 years old.


At the dawn of the third millennium, if we are talking about lifespan globally, it is estimated to be around 75 years on average. Depending on the quality of life in our societies, this number is a little higher or a little lower, but in retrospect, the rise of our civilization and all the benefits of the scientific discoveries 'only' managed to notably reduce a large number of deaths among the young population but not to extend individual life span itself. As it seems, significantly prolonging our carbon-based life with all we know today is a hard nut to crack.

The science of 'Why do we age?' is pretty much explored to the level that organic chemistry of invoking both aging and death is identified and well known. In the cell's power plant, within hundreds to thousands of mitochondria surrounding the nucleus, in the process called cell respiration, food we consume and oxygen we inhale are transformed into energy needed for the cell to operate. Unfortunately, it's the same process whereby various harmful products are discharged and released as waste products. Mitochondria uses oxygen and simple sugars to create the cell's main energy source, ATP (adenosine triphosphate), while byproducts' oxidative oxygen molecules in turn damage the adjacent mtDNA. Over time, the accumulation of mtDNA damage reaches a certain threshold value and damages the cell inevitably. The cell responds with a reproductive process in which, by using DNA instructions in the nucleus, it duplicates itself, and a new cell continues the work of the previous doomed one. Unfortunately, the number of duplications is limited until telomeres, or the protective caps at the ends of chromosomes, run out. If we add intracellular and extracellular aggregates of various molecules that are no longer useful and potentially harmful but accumulated everywhere, what we get as a result is aging, potential various diseases, and ultimately death.


By knowing all this, we don’t have to be rocket scientists to pinpoint exactly where the mythical water of the fountain of youth should operate. There are about 100,000 trillion mitochondria in the human body, and it is obvious that the Holy Grail of modern medicine lies within research of how to either deal with cells' oxidative stress along with the accumulation of junk molecules or to find a way to bypass mitochondria altogether and deliver ATP directly to every cell on a daily basis and reduce consuming food and inhaling oxygen to the bare minimum.

The history of fountain(s) of youth is most likely connected to spa waters rich in mitochondria-friendly substances. For just an example, one of the mitochondrial byproducts is hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), a strong oxidizing agent, and to deal with its negative reaction to cells, the human body is producing the antioxidant glutathione peroxidase (GPx) in order to break hydrogen peroxide into harmless water. To produce it, an organism needs glutamine, glycine, and cysteine, and those are usually present in sulfur-rich water and food, as well as in ingredients rich in selenium and certain amino acids, etc. Of course, this is just an example of one antioxidant dealing with just one oxidant, but the list goes on. There's a possibility that once in the past there existed a spa spring with a combination of antioxidant ingredients that was just perfect to maintain all the toxins below dangerous levels for those who drank it regularly. Maybe it still exists somewhere on the surface of Earth, waiting to be found. Of course, if found, swimming in it won't work. It would require drinking it on a daily basis and is probably only effective when combined with certain diets.


On the other hand, administering ATP directly to the cells via the bloodstream, if such a mechanism is possible, seems to be more complicated than I previously thought, due to the fact that mitochondrial production and behavior are not actually passive. Mitochondria don't just produce it but also deliver it to the right site within the cell. In different cell types, mitochondria behave differently and resemble small, bacterial hive-like lifeforms; they are mobile, constantly change shape, and even merge/separate with other mitochondria or construct chains for the efficiency of what they do while administrating ATP where it is actually needed. Unless the fountain of youth is full of intelligent nanobots with the ability to replace trillions of mitochondria in a human's body, preventing aging in the near future, this way resembles more science fiction than anything else. 

To conclude with some wisdom, the magic fountain or scientific pill with certain ability to significantly enhance human life span is still out of reach. To find the Holy Grail, it seems, we would definitely need one or more breakthrough discoveries that we are still missing, but with each new scientific discovery, we seem to be getting closer every day.

 

Early Man in Motion Picture

There is a period of time we are familiar with the acronym "BC". It stands, of course, for "Before Christ", the period before the famous tale about the origin of the Christian religion. But this time goes far behind Jesus. Far beyond the origin of all monotheistic religions. It goes even before the eons when our ancestors knew gods in the plural and to the ages when modern humans started their everlasting and ongoing endeavors. The time in prehistory was occupied with the endless wonders of surrounding nature without firm beliefs but surely filled with many invisible divine spirits and mysterious stars.

Due to the illiteracy of the period, there's almost nothing tangible we could use to gain full knowledge of what early society really looked like, and even though we know a great deal about those times only by analyzing cave walls, fossil records, and DNA samples, in order to describe one early settlement, we still must use lots of imagination and scientific guesses.


Personally and definitely caused by the mystery of the ancient times, I do enjoy reading and, in this case, watching fictitious stories about early people, events, and how everything was in the beginning. Hence, if we stay in the realm of motion pictures, I want to share four movie recommendations from the rather small pile of films covering prehistory free of wild imagination that might be anthropologically correct. So, let's start in, appropriately, in chronological and descending order, starting with the latest film about the earliest period of prehistory in all four movies. The story is about the first joint adventures of man and man's best friends. The wolves. Well, you know... the dogs.

Portraying Europe at the end of the Pleistocene epoch some 20,000 years ago, Alpha is telling an adventurous story of Keda, a teenage boy on his first hunting trip, and Alpha, the first domesticated wolf. They struggle to survive the harsh environment of the last ice age and, along the way, learn to enjoy new special friendships among two species. Something we are taking for granted in our very contemporary age. Three things about this movie are fascinating: for one, there are no human villains in the film, and this is amazing for nowadays movies, and yet the story works just as perfectly. Secondly, I learned something I didn't know: Alpha was played by a real Czechoslovakian Wolfdog, a mix between a German shepherd and real Carpathian wolves created for military purposes. I always admired German shepherds, but I have to say that this relatively new breed is really magnificent in every way. Finally, the language they used is a fictional one, fully developed for the movie by Christine Schreyer, an associate professor of anthropology at the University of British Columbia who used three ancestral languages in the process, and this effort alone gave the movie a genuine and really extraordinary feeling.


The next two movies went even further in the past. The set was still the Eurasian continent, and the time could be estimated at some 30-40K BC, when one of the kind events in the history of two dominant species happened. It was the time when our ancestors started to populate the area that was already taken by Neanderthals. Barely compatible, this caused the death of the weakest and most unprepared party in conflict. It is still a mystery what exactly was happening in those shared periods that probably lasted hundreds or more likely thousands of years, but in the aftermath, just like proposed in one of the movies, Neanderthals suffered and died out from both major issues: their bodies were totally unprepared for new diseases humans unknowingly delivered, and equally important, their minds couldn't stand or understand the violent behavior of newcomers.

Ao, le dernier Néandertal and The Clan of the Cave Bear are both dealing with the collision of two dominant humanoid species of the time only from different angles. At first, Ao was a desperate Neanderthal man whose family was brutally murdered by modern humans, and he was forced to seek his life elsewhere and find happiness with a homo sapiens woman. The movie offers outstanding performances by Aruna Shields and especially Simon Paul Sutton, who portrayed the story with one word—perfectly. The same goes for Jean Auel's first book of the "Earth's Children" series and the movie with the same name. Here, the script is the opposite and follows young girl Ayla, who finds shelter within the Neanderthal clan. It's hard to say which film is more appealing, historically accurate, better performed, and better made, but if you choose to watch them, entertainment filled with drama, adventure, and even romance is guaranteed.


Finally, if we go even further into the past, more or less 80000 years ago, in the time of tribal societies where the fire was a luxury and hard to find, the last film recommendation was the oldest movie of them all. Quest for Fire was filmed back in 1981, and it was the first movie I watched from this genre. I remember I was fascinated with scenes with mammoths who were played by circus elephants in full wardrobe and trained lions in the role of saber-toothed tigers. In short, three cavemen are sent on the quest to find the fire, for which they still don't have the knowledge of how to start it. The quest turned into a real adventure, and what they learned and returned to their cave was priceless. And I am not talking just about fire. Enough said.

Refs:
https://www.milanzivic.com/2015/10/neanderthals-humans-and-shared-caves.html
https://www.livescience.com/40311-pleistocene-epoch.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakian_Wolfdog
https://www.thestar.com/vancouver/2018/08/23/bc-professor-creates-language-for-alpha
https://www.cbc.ca/arts/the-wild-story-behind-quest-for-fire
 

What's Wrong with Society?

It's simple, really. Nothing is wrong with it. Society, like anything else created by our social behavior, has been following human evolution ever since we started living together within small and functionally organized communities. In the beginning there was a simple need for this—it was impossible for just one man to hunt down one, for example, mammoth or to defend a family from the herd of prehistoric saber-tooth tigers, and the only solution was to get together and organize a little for the mutual benefit. Not to mention the everlasting need for prolonging the species, which also required, sort of, well, socializing with a member of the opposite gender.

Mammoth hunt and prehistoric society*

We can only wish that things were as simple as they were millennia ago. If we disregard the fact that socializing in order to save the species didn't change much from the times when humans shared the habitat with mammoths, all other aspects of human society, due to the thousands of years of human evolution, changed a lot. We multiplied to enormous numbers, spread to the farthest corner of the Earth, used many different languages, started worshiping the divine and prominent members among us, created a money-based system of rewards, kept original differences between us and created new ones, built villages, cities, and countries to live inside, and ultimately developed a society as it is today with all its flaws and bright sides.

The question is "Did we do it wrong?"

Could we do it better, or was this the best we could do? Did we make wrong foundations in the first place, and is what we have now just a consequence of our ancestors's decisions and their poor vision of humanity as it is today? Or whatever they did, we would eventually evolve into this by its nature?

Let's not buzz our brains with "what if" questions too much. We can't change the past and explore different paths in human social evolution. Instead, what I want to write a little about in this post is just to "examine" some of the foundations we live in or use on a daily basis and take for granted as if they were always there. But before I just want to state something obvious—in this little mind experiment I am not trying to change something that needed thousands of years to emerge. That would be mission impossible. For example, we can try to advocate that living in big cities or dividing ourselves with borders and countries is not wise for many reasons, but in reality, efficient "canceling" of this way of life overnight is not possible. If we use the political metaphor, that would be similar to a revolution of some kind in order to change, for instance, an already established political system. We know from our history that all the revolutions didn't end without violent conflicts with lots of casualties and spilled blood. The less "bloody" disappointment, this time in the realm of information technologies, was felt by the mighty Google a couple of years ago when they tried to speed up the evolution of e-mail and tried to replace it with "Google Wave", an ambitious project with the power to bury email service forever with its sophisticated layers and new technology. I remember they advertised "The Wave" service as "how the e-mail would look if it were invented yesterday instead of twenty years ago". Like in the political arena, in a way, Wave was trying to revolutionize an already recognized system and expectedly failed big time.

Money, Money, Money**

No, social evolution is a very slow process, and just like the evolution of species, it is based on many tries and errors. Very few revolutionary methods succeeded in affecting it on a large scale, and I can't recall anything in the past that did it without turbulence.

But that doesn't stop us from using our imagination and trying to see one hypothetical future if we change some ground foundations a little. Just for fun.

So, for the very first ground property of our lives, let's think about how to improve the system behind the "money". Probably rudimentary trade in the form of simple barter was born with the very first societies long ago, but over time, when the amount of goods and services had risen to the point that simple exchange couldn't work anymore, it was natural that using a medium of exchange was something that was inevitably invented very soon. The history of the "medium of exchange" is very interesting, from the very beginning, when people in early civilized societies used barley grains to exchange things, through the times when different commodities were used as money, like shells, alcohol, cigarettes, and even cannabis. Today, after a long period of using gold, silver, and copper coins, we successfully created a system of banknotes that, by the beginning of the 20th century, all modern and industrialized countries accepted as the only means of use for all kinds of trades. However, even though an intermediary in the form of money was inevitable, it added other dimensions to the people's daily lives. I am sure greed existed long before money was invented in its rudimentary form, but in modern societies it received its pure meaning, or simple desire to acquire or possess more than one needs. Perhaps the only way to fix the basic problem with money, in which many people started to adore shiny banknotes more than the goods you can buy with them, is to remove one of its properties out of the equation. Cash. We need to ultimately stop using cash and replace it with a full electronic system. This way, "home money collectors" will be eliminated, and the system of individual wealth will become more transparent in many ways. I am sure "individual greed for money" would be significantly reduced, even though, as a psychological concept hidden deeply in our emotional brains, greed is simply impossible to remove.

Politics and Power***

On the other side, hypothetically speaking, removing worldwide banknotes and replacing them all with several or just one planetary electronic monetary value (let's call it credit or bitcoin?) could be possible, and that would efficiently remove so-called "corporate greed for money" and force worldwide stock markets to deal more with goods and services instead of dealing with money alone and their exchange rates. Not to mention the medical benefits of not using papers and coins that travel from one hand to another all the time. Payments in the future must be done completely without touching of any kind, preferably by wirelessly reading fingerprint-protected ID cards. Of course, there will still be people who will start worshiping 'credits' now instead of green banknotes, but hopefully their number will be significantly reduced due to a lack of physical connection in the hypothetical new system.

Ok, now that we fixed the money problem ;-), what else are we enjoying every day for granted? What is that thing that the average human being worships the same along with wealth and collecting treasures of any kind? Yes. The power. There is no society in nowadays planetary kingdoms, republics, states, provinces, or even the smallest municipalities with no rulers recognized and worshiped by the majority. No matter if they use simple dictatorship, communism, still live in African tribes, or live within highly evolved democracies, everything is organized within one or a couple "alpha" leader(s) in power, followed by the people designated in lower ranks ("betas" and "omegas" if we use the wolf herd analogy). These behaviors also came from our emotional inner beings, which we inherited from our animal origins. Fixing this problem is easy, and within current societies (evolutionary speaking), I can't see a better system than democracy. People are different in many aspects, and it is necessary that the majority select the rulers, and the only thing we need to do is improve democracy as it is in the current stage. In simple words, instead of voting for political parties that, if elected, govern the society for several years until the next elections, it became necessary to find a way to involve people and the voting system more frequently and for each and every agenda that requires important decisions to be made. Instead of voting for politicians, elections should be organized for each chairman, so to speak. Electronic voting is now possible, and counting the results can be done almost instantly, so we need a way to vote for the prime minister alone as well as for each member of the government. Also, voting should be selective, and it should not allow all members of the community to vote every time. For example, hypothetically speaking, why would I be involved in the election of the ministry of health when I committed and educated myself within the food and agriculture industry? I don't even know anybody from the medical institutions, so how would my vote be relevant? The same would be for the election of the ministry of agriculture, and only relevant people within this realm should participate in this election, and there is no need for doctors and nurses to bother voting for something that has so little in common. Anyway, a real democratic system requires many changes, and nowadays technologies allow the transformation. The only problem is that politicians would suffer the most and almost become extinct in the process, making this change as hard as the exchange of CRT television sets with flat screens. But it is inevitable, and in one way or another it will happen. Like in the case of "Cathode Ray Tube" TV sets, no matter how old technology spreads its roots, it is destined to die eventually.

Five Myths About Education****
So far we have encountered financial and political systems that actually create the rules responsible for one society's health. But what is even more important than these? Who is actually behind these systems? Yes. People. Individuals. But how did they come to be in the first place? Where did they learn all that they know? Yes. This is the final social link we need to improve. The Education. We all once were kids. No matter how talented we were, we needed to go through the educational system to become what we are today. This is where everything started and therefore the system that is the most responsible for the outcome of one society. What we have now in our societies, basically everything bad and good in our human existence, more or less, has to thank education. If one man or woman became a successful scientist responsible for some kind of breakthrough discovery that would change the world, the big portion of gratitude would go to the education institutions where he/she spent early days learning and acquiring knowledge and skills. The same amount of credit goes to the education institutions that actually provided installation of a mass murderer, serial killer, or lunatic war general, or at least didn't do enough to prevent their misfortune. The bottom line here is that the educational part of any society is something that must be the most important of them all. Sadly, there is no country in the world that prioritizes this part over anything else. Not even the highly evolved democracies and technocracies recognized the full potential and danger of one educational system. We now have mediocre politicians and bank employees that enjoy a wealthier life than highly educated teachers and university professors. Not to mention that military budgets in ALL countries are way bigger than their counterparts in educational and scientific systems, directly or indirectly funded by tax money taken from people. When I think of nowadays societies all over the world in relation to education and science, the title question, "What's Wrong with Society?" might not be accurate. Maybe the better question would be "Why is society turned upside down?"

Yes, education in private schools and universities is way better by the quality of given knowledge compared to tax funding and state institutions, but looking at it from the global scale, there are only a few of them, not to mention that the price of scholarships is way above the average income of the society they are located in, automatically excluding potentially extraordinary students from participating in the first place. The solution I have in mind is based on further fragmentation of class groups. Schools, especially elementary schools, are gathering kids away from their families every day, and it would be only fair to provide a family-like atmosphere inside the classroom. If we consider this, it seems reasonable that the number of students should not be bigger than 5 per group. These small selected groups would be enjoying classes in a more relaxing environment and over time get better results than a group of 15-30 pupils like today simply because each member of the smaller group would be more active on a daily basis. A family-like atmosphere would allow active tutoring of poor or lazy students as well as better acceptance of those who came from dysfunctional families. Furthermore, bright students and their interests would be spotted much earlier and therefore provided with more time in targeted education following their recognized talents and interests. The goal is also to get much better insight into the development of young people during their childhood and adolescent periods, when they are the most vulnerable and easy targets for various influences.

I will stop now and probably leave some more foundations and brainstorming about their improvements for some future posts (for example, dealing with social security with respect to medical and elderly insurance or demographic separations of different societies). The baseline here is that nothing is written in stone, and there is nothing wrong with thinking of how to change some social foundation, even though it has been in use for centuries. Times are passing fast, and sometimes we might be unaware that some technology already developed can help us live much better if we only try and dare to use it.

Without revolutionizing anything, of course.

Grisly find suggests humans inhabited Arctic 45,000 years ago*
http://www.sciencemag.org/grisly-find-suggests-humans-inhabited-arctic

Money, Money, Money**
http://sploid.gizmodo.com/holy-wow-you-can-actually-swim-like-scrooge-mcduck-in-1481547007

Politics and Power***
https://www.masonreport.com/donald-trumps-campaign-rhetoric

Five Myths About Education****
http://www.thepolisblog.org/2012/11/education.html
 

Who's Behind the Wheel?

Have you ever been in a situation to answer somebody's question with 'Yes and No'? Well, it is definitely one of those answers they are teaching politicians to answer every time they need to use some evasive maneuvers in order to avoid discussions they don't want to get into. But in this case, the answer to the question from the title, or expanded a little with "Are you really behind the wheel of your body?" is really "Yes and no". And nothing could be closer to the truth. The keyword is, of course, parasitology, a very complex scientific research that is trying to understand properly all the macro- and microorganisms that can't live without other living beings and usually do that without their consent and rather use them to live their entire or partial life, which in most cases leads to the host's malfunction, to use a raw mechanical word. They only leave hosts in case of their death or if the host's environment is exploited to the level of uselessness for parasitic survival or simply to follow the natural circle of life, i.e., to lay eggs outside the host environment.

Toxoplasma gondii—a single-celled protozoan*

This blog is not a medical source or place for studying biological entities of any kind, and I am surely not really qualified to provide any advanced knowledge about parasites and how to avoid contamination or heal after. But I am always interested in scientific edges and research that provide unusual results, to say the least, and this post is more about whether or not some parasitic species, like Toxoplasma gondii, are able to affect the human mind in a way that the personality of the host could be changed to the level of influencing their entire social life. However, some basic information can't hurt in order to better understand how biology works. For example, if we are talking about macroparasites or entire sexually developed tiny organisms with complex 'teen' and 'adult' lives with stages of infecting hosts, feeding, laying eggs, and contaminating surroundings, then we are talking more about different kinds of worms (shaped as round, tape, hook, whip, etc.) invading hosts through raw meat, contaminated water, or unclean food. This is the most common way of intrusion, but parasitic eggs can be spread everywhere and through the simple touch of infected handles, phones, appliances... anything at all. When inside, they eat your digested food or even your blood vessels and cells. And they spread a wide variety of diseases, even though they can stay dormant for months and years. They are truly microscopic monsters, very similar to those 'Alien' types in horror movies.

However, the bigger they are, the better they are studied and understood, and today, contrary to the Dark Ages, when parasitic infection was able to spread severely among huge numbers of people, treatments are very successful if detected as early as possible. The smaller they get, like the single-cell deadly microorganism known as Plasmodium (the malaria parasite), the tougher the fight is for knowledge and treatments for diseases they are causing. And for some parasites, disease, in the form we define it, is just the final stage of their complex life. As it seems, they are also very much able to force their hosts to do their bidding as well. In the most intelligent and cruel way. Let's see what Toxoplasma gondii is capable of. Sometimes it is hard to believe all the scientific facts. And believe me, 'believe' is the right word for this little alien and hostile invader of hosts' minds. Humans included.

Cats and Mice: It's Complicated*

All parasite species tend to complete their lives from the stage of being born till the end of their lives. Toxoplasma gondii's ultimate treat is the cat. This is what it is designed for, and this is where it wants to finally multiply and end its life. But it is hard to find a cat when you need it, right? So there are lots of potential intermediate hosts on the way. Before they ultimately end in the intestine of a cat-shaped animal, they find the drive in the cysts of the brain and other tissues of a warm-blooded species, including humans. If they move into rats or some other rodent animal, the parasite recognizes its intermediary and alters the host's behavior for one purpose only—to be an easy victim for cats. More precisely, they induce high levels of dopamine, a neurotransmitter known to alter novelty-seeking and enhance the host's neuroticism. In other words, the mouse becomes a curious adventurer of its surroundings and loses fear of cats and everybody else. Uninfected rodents have built-in protection from their native predators and always try to avoid areas marked with cat urine or odor, but after the infection, the parasite brainwashes rodents to even go into craving cat urine and directly into the trap. Toxoplasma gondii can only sexually reproduce in the feline gut, and there you have the answer to why cats love mice and rats so much. Even more surprisingly, all the symptoms in infected lab rats stay after parasites die in the rodent, suggesting permanent changes in the host's neural system.

But what happens if T. gondii finds the way and invades the human body? And according to research, it is apparently capable of infecting us on large scales, and up to one-third of people around the world are estimated to be potential hosts. And we are sort of a dead end for their travel. If we exclude sporadic cases of tigers and lions attacking and eating humans, cats actually can't thrive on us. Well, yes, domestic cats don't eat human beings, but still, there are other ways of transferring parasites from humans to cats, and it seems that Toxoplasma gondii, like in rodents, is also trying to use its unprecedented ability to alter host behavior, all in favor of parasitic life fulfillment. For the simplicity of this blog post, we can make a difference in parasitic life inside an intermediate human host compared to rats and mice. In its acute form, I would say after the parasite realizes there is no way out, or due to some other reason in the mixture of the parasitic and host's life, the human host can go into severe mental disorders such as schizophrenia, suicidal behavior, or the performance of slow mental activity and thinking. Within a large amount of time, in the parasite's latent form, the host is going through light personality changes that are very difficult to recognize as a disease. The latent toxoplasmosis might even be immune to treatments and antibiotics, and some hosts, like our distant rodent relatives, could even change their response to cat odor as well.

The Veneration and Worship of Felines in Ancient Egypt*

Perhaps a decade ago, one comprehensive study was finished at Charles University in Prague, in the Czech Republic, by Jaroslav Flegr, and numerous researchers ended with extremely interesting findings published in the paper "Induction of changes in human behavior by the parasitic protozoan Toxoplasma gondii" (referenced below). Over the years, they tested many cases of infected men and women against 'Cattell's personality factors' (a sort of scientific personality test designed to reveal aspects of an individual's character) and compared them to those performed by non-infected people. Both infected men and women had significantly higher apprehension and levels of social fearfulness, with significant differences in results between the two groups. Infected men showed lower superego strength (rule consciousness), higher vigilance, were more likely to disregard rules, and were more expedient, suspicious, jealous, and dogmatic. Women, on the other end, showed higher warmth and higher superego strength, suggesting that they were more warm-hearted, outgoing, conscientious, persistent, and moralistic. And all those human properties are not considered a disease of any sort. Remember that the latent stage of toxoplasmosis can be the case for one of three people you can meet on the street, including yourself and me. All those people would behave differently if they were not under the influence of small microorganisms only visible under the eye of an electronic microscope!

Now, it is very much close to all sorts of logic that human culture, isolated or widespread, can alter individual personality. In simple words, if you are a member of a herd of sheep, you are most likely a white sheep and behave like all the other members of society, well... the herd. However, the same logic goes for humans and the other way around—that cumulative personality might shape cultural dimensions through the collective behavior of individuals. And if you got yourself a society of humans, all or most of them infected with T. gondii (which is not far from the truth, especially in the early history of mankind ever since ancient Egypt and the domestication of cats), their cultural self would no doubt be shaped far from the case if they were all uninfected and healthy. And if you glimpse again the personality of diverted subjects above, with increased apprehension and decreased superego with men and highly sensitive women, if you ask me, the very own free will could be in question along with increased susceptibility to superstition and religiosity.

Well, I am not saying it, and surely there's lots more research to be done, but if one small society in the history of humanity should thank a small microorganism for, i.e., the rise of religion and everything that implies, you have to wonder...


...about a nice plot for a novel. And that is exactly what Tom Knox did with his thriller called "The Deceit", an amazingly wrapped plot that connects the origins of all religions, ancient Egypt, domesticated cats, Toxoplasma gondii, and everything that might come out of this twist glued together. True or partially true or not at all, this book inspired me to learn something that I didn't know before and, of course, pushed me for a little web research that ended with this blog post. This is actually a second time that Tom Knox, a.k.a. Sean Thomas, forced me to do some more reading about the background of his novel, and needless to say, I recommend both books and am looking forward to more of his work. I have already hinted at "The Marks of Cain", which apparently offers similar travel through the history of man. Stay tuned.

T. gondii refs:
http://jeb.biologists.org/content/216/1/1.short
https://web.natur.cuni.cz/flegr/pdf/induction.pdf
http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/273/1602/2749
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/04/070403-cats-rats.html
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2526142/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16PF_Questionnaire

* Image refs:
https://www.science.org/content/article/.../toxoplasmosis-parasite-lab
http://www.ancient-origins.net/history/veneration-and-worship-felines-ancient-egypt-003030
 

Genetic Genealogy

Recently, my five-year-old boy asked me the question I knew it would eventually come. The very question all parents are inevitably faced with when the right time comes. With my son it came in the simplest form: "What is God?" popped occasionally after tons of OMGs he heard everywhere in his realm of cartoons, video games, YouTube channels, and TV shows. I wasn't prepared completely. I mean, I had a pretty good idea of how to explain mythical phenomena, unknown and unexplainable tales, and the very concept of belief, but I didn't know how to do it without destroying Santa Claus, the Easter Bunny, and other fairy tales he enjoys every year. To me, it's much too early for that age in life. It would only add disappointment and confusion, and it's better to leave it for a little later. So I performed good old evasive maneuvers, and in a couple of curves, I succeeded in changing the topic and postponing the inevitable for the next time, which will come probably sooner than I think. The truth is, while it is not too difficult to explain the absence of God with the simple Occam's razor principle, it is extremely hard to comprehend why so many people live in their world of prayers, worshiping the divine and believing in a wide variety of religious stories.

Gene -> DNA -> Chromosome -> Cell*

To be honest, whether or not God(s) is responsible for the very creation of life as we know it or it came after a long period of evolutionary 'tries and errors', one thing is for sure. Whoever the creator is, today we know a great deal about how the life laboratory works and almost completely understand the very basics of how one living entity grows from the stage of being a small seed (or two of them, to be precise, for many species) to a fully formed individual. It's all written in the biggest molecule out there, located in every single living cell. No matter if you are a virus, small bacteria, tree, ugly fly, or any kind of mammal, how you will look and what your capacity to dazzle will be are all written in the genes of your DNA molecule. To put it simply, one gene, or a group of them, is responsible for one property of you. They are virtually responsible for the way you are smiling, how you walk, why your hair is curly and blonde, how intelligent you are, how tall you are, why you love romantic movies and hate science fiction... They even define you to be either religious or skeptic, explorer or indigenous, emotional or psychopath... Basically everything that defines a personality. You can't escape from what you are, as it is simply carved in the stone and irretrievably combined in your DNA sequence.

But how does it really work? You probably heard that human genetics are only a couple of percent different from, for example, the genetics of chimps, while the Neanderthals differ by less than one percent. In human genetics, one parent is providing 23 chromosomes that are paired with the other parent's and stored in our cells in a total of 46. Chromosome sequencing counted a sum of 32,185 genes responsible for the unique appearance of each person. There are no two identical individuals; even identical twins differ on a genetic level, providing, for example, different fingerprints among hundreds of other genetic differences they have due to mutations in genes in their early development.

Map of Human Migration**

Contrary to all those differences between individuals, genetic genealogy, on the other hand, deals with similarities and identical sequences in the human genome, trying to classify humans in their groups of origin. This scientific effort is providing a better understanding of human migrations from the point when everything started for all of us back then in Africa. Many genealogy surveys are performing DNA testing for this purpose, and after less than a decade of mass analyses of DNA material and thousands of specimens, dozens of haplogroups (geographic areas or migrational paths occupied by people with the same or similar sequences in particular genes) are identified. The evolution of humans depends on one single thing—mutations in genes or errors made in the human genome due to environmental and other factors in the long history of human migrations. Homo sapiens lived entirely in Africa 150,000 years ago and started migrating out approximately 70,000 years ago. This process is considered finished only 2,000 years ago, when the last habitable island in the Pacific was occupied. Along the way our ancestors changed according to the conditions of the area they encountered and, evolutionarily speaking, divided into different races and groups. The research so far has given us very interesting results. Probably the most valuable fact given is that we all share the same family lineage. So far, among all tested DNA samples, it is not yet identified a sample with different rooted ancestors, both male and female. This hints that all people on Earth are having the same ancestors, scientific Adam and Eve, or, to be precise, 'Y-chromosomal' Adam and 'Mitochondrial' Eve.

In other words, everyone is related, and basically, if we had the data of all people who ever lived in the world,we could be able to create one giant family tree starting with the mentioned Adam and Eve. Even though they didn't know each other and lived separately by maybe 100,000 years, those two lineages are now the only ones that have survived in time. At least until we find different data in Y-DNA and mtDNA tests and find more ancestor roots. Only to be fair, after all the testing so far, it seems that even if we find any, they would only represent the side paths and small groups of humans sharing this hypothetical lineage(s). But how exactly is it possible to trace down your ancestors by analyzing the DNA code? The goal is to identify sequences in DNA that are in a way "immune" to mutations and passed from generations to generations almost unchangeable over time. There are sequences like that in the male sex Y chromosome passed only by the father's line. More than 100 sequences and their repetitions within the chromosome have been identified over the years and are today used in searching for a match for the most recent common ancestor when two samples are compared. Those sequences in the laboratory are called markers, and the more markers are used for comparison, the more precise the result could be, meaning you would be able to find a more recent common ancestor. The same is true with the maternal lineage test; only in this case, the X chromosome is useless due to severe changes over time, and instead mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is used, as this is passed by female ancestors in almost unchanged form. Similar to the Y-DNA test, markers are compared, only with a difference that this time it is not the number of repetitions of sequences that are being searched for but instead predicted changes or rare mutations in DNA recombination happening over time. The same procedure can be used for testing Y-DNA as well. The combination of these two testing types and comparing the results with the sample database provide matches in both recent and ancient ancestries and predict the appropriate haplogroup for the specimen along with the list of many relatives who already tested and were found in the database.

Haplogroup I (Y-DNA) distribution

You probably noticed that I am not trying to include too much scientific data and terms. If you are eager to dive deeper into this extremely interesting research, please find links and follow-up stories I included at the end of the post. Furthermore, I am not an expert in this field, just another reader following the research for more exciting discoveries and possible breakthroughs, and not only in genetic genealogy but in general DNA sequencing as well. With the courtesy of Beth Perry Steger, my dear Facebook friend, I own an NG's Genographic testing kit, the project with probably the biggest database of tested users, counting more than half a million users. Unfortunately, due to Serbian law policy that forbids sending any kind of biological samples via any kind of mail services, I am still waiting for the opportunity to do this abroad, but nevertheless, there are only a couple of haplogroups I can belong to, and the biggest probability is the haplogroup I (M170), where almost one-third of the population of Serbs are predicted to originate from. However, there are a couple more candidates for this region of the world if we exclude possible surprises and unknown data that happened in the history of my family. Long ago I started to fill out our family tree online and only have partial data for generations 5 and above, which is too small a data specimen to conclude anything valuable. I am sure I will know more in the following years and that this post thread dedicated to genetics will get its successor.

Finally, and probably completely unrelated to the genealogy described in this post, which is more of an anthropological study and not used for medical purposes, it would be unfair, to say the least, not to mention the large percent of noncoding DNA, or "junk DNA", portion of the human genome. More than 50% of the double helix is still not fully understood. It is determined that this part of DNA is not encoding protein sequences like those genes we mentioned earlier. It seems that a big part of these DNA sequences don't have any known biological function, and only recently some new theories and studies indicate that they are very active and serve in the regulation or fine-tuning of proteins. Differences in protein regulations and molecules might be responsible for different reactions of people to the same disease. It is not clear why, for example, identical twins react differently to some infections or diseases, to the extent that in the same environments, one twin can be more immune to the same disease compared to his sibling.


Anyway, entire DNA research is still young science, and I am sure more and more discoveries are still awaiting us in the near future. To make sure we better understand what our scientists are dealing with, just try to comprehend the size of this molecule. I found the fact that one single gram of DNA can hold 700 terabytes of data while one state-of-the-art personal notebook today contains less than one terabyte of internal memory. Imagine what can be stored inside. If even a tiny portion of junk DNA is really junk, we might learn how to use it to store files inside. One day instead of magnetic hard drives, you might have a personal computer that connects to cockroaches carrying your personal data.

Guide to Finding the Best DNA Ancestry Test
https://www.innerbody.com/dna-testing/best-dna-ancestry-test

* Cell division
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/

Image follow-up stories
** https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/human-journey/
** http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_I2_(Y-DNA)#I-L69.2
*** http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_I-M170

Refs:
https://honestproductreviews.com/best-dna-test-for-ancestry/
http://www.familytreedna.com/faq/
http://www.familytreedna.com/snps-r-us.aspx
https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/

Wiki
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genealogical_DNA_test
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Serbs
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_I2_(Y-DNA)